Postoperative nausea and vomiting
| Postoperative nausea and vomiting | |
|---|---|
| Specialty | Anesthesia |
Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is the common complication of nausea, vomiting, or retching experienced by a person within the first 24 hours following a surgical procedure. Untreated, PONV affects about 30% of people undergoing general anesthesia each year, with rates rising to 70–80% among those considered high-risk.[1] Postoperative nausea and vomiting can be highly distressing for people undergoing surgery and may pose significant barriers towards recovery, cause surgical complications, and result in delayed discharge from the surgical center if not managed properly.[2]
Cause
[edit]Risk factors
[edit]Risk factors for PONV can be classified into three main categories: patient-related, surgical, and anesthetic-related.[3]
Patient-related
[edit]Patient factors that confer increased risk for PONV include female gender, younger age (<16 years old), obesity, non-smoking status, high levels of preoperative anxiety, and prior history of PONV, motion sickness, or chemotherapy-induced nausea.[citation needed]
The Apfel risk-scoring system is commonly used to sensitively and specifically determine the risk of PONV in adults.[3] This simplified scoring system considers four primary predictors:[4]
- Female sex (most reliable)
- Non-smoking status
- History of PONV or motion sickness
- Post-operative opioid use
The presence of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 factors corresponds to PONV risks of approximately 10%, 20%, 40%, 70%, and 80%, respectively.[5]
Research has also shown a genetic disposition towards PONV.[6]
Certain procedure types such as gynecological, abdominal, laparoscopic, ENT surgeries, and strabismus surgery in children are associated with a modestly increased risk of PONV versus other general surgical procedures.[3]
Anesthetic-related
[edit]The type of anesthetic medication plays a role in the risk for nausea and vomiting after surgery. Several medications routinely used in anesthesiology are believed to contribute to nausea and vomiting by acting on the highly sensitive chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) located in the area postrema in the medulla oblangata, although the exact mechanisms remain poorly understood.[citation needed] Prolonged exposure to these drugs, namely volatile anesthetics, nitrous oxide (N2O), physostigmine, and opioids has been found to be correlated with increased PONV risk.[3][7]
The approach taken to anesthesia may also play a role in the risk of nausea and vomiting post-operatively. A significant body of evidence indicates that total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) using propofol for induction and maintenance can reduce the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting significantly in both adults and children (3.5-fold vs. 5.7-fold reduction respectively) in comparison to volatile-anesthetic based techniques.[3][8] Regional anesthesia has also demonstrated better outcomes for patients when compared to its general counterpart.
Mechanism
[edit]The pathophysiology of PONV is mediated by several key neurotransmitters, including histamine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and the more recently recognized neurokinin-1 (substance P).[citation needed] Pharmacologic stimulation of different chemoreceptors in the brain trigger different pathways that can result in PONV.[citation needed] Additionally, direct surgical manipulation of the vestibular system (cranial nerve VIII) or gastrointestinal structures innervated by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) can further activate the neural pathways involved in precipitating nausea and vomiting.[citation needed]
Prevention
[edit]Key strategies in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting include diligent risk assessment and stratification, use of non-volatile anesthetic techniques when feasible, provision of preventative medications based on risk, and employment of multimodal, opioid-sparing techniques for surgical pain control.[9]
Optimizing intravascular fluid volume during surgery is another strategy to reduce the risk of PONV, often achieved by administering additional IV fluids under general anesthesia.[2][3] This approach addresses the fluid deficit caused by preoperative fasting, which typically restricts oral fluid intake for 2–6 hours before surgery. There is some evidence that providing the person undergoing anesthesia with supplemental perioperative intravenous crystalloids may reduce vomiting and/or nausea in patients with certain characteristics (American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) class I and II patients).[2] The potential risks and other adverse effects with this type of therapy are unknown.[2] For minor surgical procedures, more research is needed to determine the risks and benefits of this approach.[2]
Management
[edit]Commonly administered medications like serotonin receptor antagonists (ondansetron), corticosteroids (dexamethasone), and neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists (aprepitant) primarily act by modifying the release and activity of the aforementioned neurotransmitters involved in nausea and vomiting, effectively reducing the incidence of PONV.[10] Using a multimodal approach by combining drugs targeting different receptors involved in PONV has been shown to be more efficacious than monotherapy.[11] However, numerous patient factors, adverse side effects, and cost-effectiveness of these medications must be taken into consideration when selecting a treatment regimen. Recent evidence has shown that alternative therapies may also play a role in decreasing the incidence of PONV when used in conjunction with conventional treatment.[12]
Medications
[edit]- Serotonin (5-HT3) receptor antagonists can be administered as a single dose at the end of surgery. Adverse effects include prolongation of the QT interval on electrocardiogram (EKG). Medications include ondansetron, granisetron, and dolasetron.[10]
- Anticholinergics can be used as a long-acting patch placed behind the patient's ear. Adverse effects include dry mouth and blurry vision. Care must be taken when handling the patch, as transfer of medication to the eye can induce pupillary dilation. Avoid use in elderly patients. Medications include scopolamine.
- Glucocorticoids have direct antiemetic effects and can reduce need for postoperative opioids. Adverse effects include a transient increase in serum glucose level, and poor wound healing (controversial). Medications include dexamethasone.
- Butyrophenones are antipsychotic medications that are typically administered as a single injection at the end of surgery. Medications include droperidol and haloperidol, although droperidol is less frequently used as it may cause QT prolongation on EKG.[2]
- Phenothiazines are particularly effective in treating opioid-induced PONV. Adverse effects are dose-dependent and include sedation and extrapyramidal symptoms. Medications include promethazine, chlorpromazine and prochlorperazine.
- Neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonists prevent emetic signals from being transmitted to the area postrema. Medications include aprepitant and rolapitant.
- Histamine receptor antagonists can be administered by multiple routes, including orally, intramuscularly, or rectally. Adverse effects include dry mouth, sedation, and urinary retention. Medications include dimenhydrinate and diphenhydramine.
- Propofol, an anesthetic medication, confers its own antiemetic properties.
Current research has demonstrated that a combination of dexamethasone and ondansetron is the most common, and effective anti-emetic therapy for PONV.[11] The literature also adds robust evidence towards the efficacy of drugs in newer classes, such as aprepitant or fosapreitant, or newer agents in familiar classes, such as ramosetron. However, given the poor cost effectiveness of the agents included and, despite increased efficacy for said novel agents, this may preclude their immediate utilization in anesthetic practice.[11]
Alternative therapies
[edit]The management of perioperative pain using opioid-sparing multimodal analgesic techniques is critically important for reducing PONV incidence and achieving enhanced recovery after surgery. In addition to incorporating non-opioid analgesics like NSAIDs and acetaminophen, at least one study has found that application to the pericardium meridian 6 acupressure point produced a positive effect in relieving PONV.[13] Another study found no statistically significant difference.[14] The two general types of alternative pressure therapy are sham acupressure and the use of the P6 point. A 2015 study found no significant difference between the use of either therapy in the treatment or prevention of PONV. In a review of 59 studies, both therapies significantly affected the nausea aspect, but had no significant effect on vomiting.[citation needed]
There is also some evidence suggesting that music interventions in the perioperative period can effectively reduce postoperative vomiting, although the impact of music therapy and interventions on nausea remains unclear.[12]
Oral ginger capsule consumption before surgery has also been shown to significantly reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting 6 hours following surgery when compared to placebo. However, further investigation evaluating ginger's efficacy against and with conventional anti-emetic prophylaxis is required to properly determine its use as a supplemental therapy.[15]
Cannabinoids have also been used for treatment of PONV, but its safety and efficacy are controversial.[citation needed]
Epidemiology
[edit]Typically, the incidence of nausea or vomiting after general anesthesia ranges between 25 and 30%.[16] Nausea and vomiting can be extremely distressing for patients, and so is one of their major concerns.[17] Vomiting has been associated with major complications, such as pulmonary aspiration of gastric content, and might endanger surgical outcomes after certain procedures, for example after maxillofacial surgery with wired jaws. Nausea and vomiting can delay discharge, and about 1% of patients scheduled for day surgery require unanticipated overnight admission because of uncontrolled PONV.[citation needed]
References
[edit]- ^ Amirshahi, Mehrbanoo; Behnamfar, Niaz; Badakhsh, Mahin; Rafiemanesh, Hosein; Keikhaie, KhadijeRezaie; Sheyback, Mahmood; Sari, Mahdeh (2020). "Prevalence of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia. 14 (1): 48–56. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_401_19. ISSN 1658-354X. PMC 6970369. PMID 31998020.
- ^ a b c d e f Jewer, James K; Wong, Michael J; Bird, Sally J; Habib, Ashraf S; Parker, Robin; George, Ronald B (29 March 2019). "Supplemental perioperative intravenous crystalloids for postoperative nausea and vomiting". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (4): CD012212. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012212.pub2. PMC 6440702. PMID 30925195. S2CID 80300081.
- ^ a b c d e f Elvir-Lazo, Ofelia Loani; White, Paul F.; Yumul, Roya; Cruz Eng, Hillenn (2020-08-13). "Management strategies for the treatment and prevention of postoperative/postdischarge nausea and vomiting: an updated review". F1000Research. 9: 983. doi:10.12688/f1000research.21832.1. ISSN 2046-1402. PMC 7429924. PMID 32913634.
- ^ Apfel, C.C.; Heidrich, F.M.; Jukar-Rao, S; Jalota, L; Hornuss, C; Whelan, R.P.; Zhang, K; Cakmakkaya, O.S. (November 2012). "Evidence-based analysis of risk factors for postoperative nausea and vomiting". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 109 (5): 742–753. doi:10.1093/bja/aes276. PMID 23035051.
- ^ Apfel, Christian C.; Läärä, Esa; Koivuranta, Merja; Greim, Clemens-A.; Roewer, Norbert (September 1999). "A Simplified Risk Score for Predicting Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting". Anesthesiology. 91 (3): 693–700. doi:10.1097/00000542-199909000-00022. PMID 10485781.
- ^ Apfel, C. C.; Heidrich, F. M.; Jukar-Rao, S; Jalota, L; Hornuss, C; Whelan, R. P.; Zhang, K; Cakmakkaya, O. S. (2012-11-01). "Evidence-based analysis of risk factors for postoperative nausea and vomiting†". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 109 (5): 742–753. doi:10.1093/bja/aes276. ISSN 0007-0912.
- ^ Fernández-Guisasola, J.; Gómez-Arnau, J. I.; Cabrera, Y.; del Valle, S. García (April 2010). "Association between nitrous oxide and the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Anaesthesia. 65 (4): 379–387. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2010.06249.x. ISSN 0003-2409. PMID 20151955.
- ^ Sneyd; Carr; Byrom; Bilski (July 1998). "A meta-analysis of nausea and vomiting following maintenance of anaesthesia with propofol or inhalational agents". European Journal of Anaesthesiology. 15 (4): 433–445. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2346.1998.00319.x. ISSN 0265-0215. PMID 9699101.
- ^ Gan, Tong J.; Belani, Kumar G.; Bergese, Sergio; Chung, Frances; Diemunsch, Pierre; Habib, Ashraf S.; Jin, Zhaosheng; Kovac, Anthony L.; Meyer, Tricia A.; Urman, Richard D.; Apfel, Christian C.; Ayad, Sabry; Beagley, Linda; Candiotti, Keith; Englesakis, Marina (August 2020). "Fourth Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 131 (2): 411–448. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000004833. ISSN 0003-2999. PMID 32467512.
- ^ a b David, Vilchis-Valentin; Merith, García-Maldonado; Arturo, Larrazolo-Ochoa; Angélica, Gutiérrez-Montes Laura; Esteban, Camacho-Ramos Cesar; Cuellar-Garduño, Norma; López, Ricardo Alfonso Oropeza (2023-06-30). "Systematized review of the literature on postoperative nausea and vomiting". Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care: Open Access. 15 (3): 101–107. doi:10.15406/jaccoa.2023.15.00561.
- ^ a b c Weibel, Stephanie; Rücker, Gerta; Eberhart, Leopold HJ; Pace, Nathan L; Hartl, Hannah M; Jordan, Olivia L; Mayer, Debora; Riemer, Manuel; Schaefer, Maximilian S; Raj, Diana; Backhaus, Insa; Helf, Antonia; Schlesinger, Tobias; Kienbaum, Peter; Kranke, Peter (19 October 2020). "Drugs for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting in adults after general anaesthesia: a network meta-analysis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (11): CD012859. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012859.pub2. PMC 8094506. PMID 33075160.
- ^ a b Dursun Ergezen, Fatma; Özer, Zeynep; Kol, Emine (October 2022). "Effectiveness of Music Intervention on Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing. 37 (5): 717–727. doi:10.1016/j.jopan.2021.11.009. PMID 35606249.
- ^ Fan, Chin-Fu; Tanhui, Eduardo; Joshi, Sanjoy; Trivedi, Shivang; Hong, Yiyan; Shevde, Ketan (April 1997). "Acupressure Treatment for Prevention of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 84 (4): 821–825. doi:10.1213/00000539-199704000-00023. PMID 9085965.
- ^ Samad, K; Afshan, G.; Kamal, R. (February 2003). "Effect of acupressure on postoperative nausea and vomiting in laparoscopic cholecystectomy". Journal of Pakistan Medical Association. 53 (2): 68–72. PMID 12705488.
- ^ Zhu, Wei; Dai, Yan; Huang, Mingjun; Li, Jiping (November 2021). "Efficacy of Ginger in Preventing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 53 (6): 671–679. doi:10.1111/jnu.12691. ISSN 1527-6546. PMID 34312974.
- ^ Wongyingsinn, Mingkwan; Peanpanich, Pechprapa; Charoensawan, Sirirat (21 October 2022). "A randomized controlled trial comparing incidences of postoperative nausea and vomiting after laparoscopic cholecystectomy for preoperative intravenous fluid loading, ondansetron, and control groups in a regional hospital setting in a developing country". Medicine. 101 (42): e31155. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000031155. PMC 9592396. PMID 36281094.
- ^ Eberhart, L. H. J.; Morin, A. M.; Wulf, H.; Geldner, G. (November 2002). "Patient preferences for immediate postoperative recovery". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 89 (5): 760–761. doi:10.1093/bja/89.5.760. PMID 12393775.
Further reading
[edit]- Blackburn, James; Spencer, Ruth (September 2015). "Postoperative nausea and vomiting". Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 16 (9): 452–456. doi:10.1016/j.mpaic.2015.06.020.
- Pleuvry, Barbara J. (September 2015). "Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting". Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. 16 (9): 462–466. doi:10.1016/j.mpaic.2015.06.018.
- Becker, Daniel E. (Winter 2010). "Nausea, Vomiting, and Hiccups: A Review of Mechanisms and Treatment". Anesthesia Progress. 57 (4): 150–157. doi:10.2344/0003-3006-57.4.150. PMC 3006663. PMID 21174569.
